The Kakatiyas, a known indigenous Andhra power, presided over the destiny of Andhradesa from the 10th century AD to the first quarter of the 14th century AD.
Even today the memory of the Kakatiya
rule is green in the minds and hearts of the Andhrajati as the Kakatiyas shaped
and moulded the identity of the Andhras by establishing a unified political and
cultural hegemony over the entire Telugu-speaking region.
Like the rest of the political power
structures, there is no unanimity among historians regarding the origin and
caste of the Kakatiyas.
The literary text
Prataparudrayasobhushana of Vidyanatha records that this family of rulers was
called Kakatiyas as they were known to have worshipped the goddess Kakati.
The Kakatiyas are also known as
worshippers of Svayambhudeva, i.e., Siva. The Bayyaram tank epigraph now
definitely proves that Venna was the earliest member of the family and he ruled
from a town called Kakati and as such his descendants are styled as Kakatiyas.
The epigraphs of the Kakatiyas refer
to them as the lords of Kakatipura. On the basis of these literary and
epigraphical evidences, it can be suggested that Kakati was a Pura or town and
the family name Kakatiya might have been based on the original connection of
the family with that town. The epigraphs further state that the Kakatiyas were
originally of some Ratta or Rashtrakuta family and hence Chaturdhakulajas or
Sudras. The Kakatiyas claim that they belonged to the Durjaya family whose very
remote ancestor Karikalachola founded Kakatipura.
The first known historical personage
among the Kakatiyas was Gundaya Rashtrakuta. Gundaya is known from the Mangallu
record of Danarnava. Gundaya, the commander of Rashtrakuta Krishna II died in
the battlefield fighting with the Eastern Chalukyas. The Rastrakuta Krishna II
rewarded Ereya, the son of Gundaya with the governorship of the Korivi region
for the loyal service rendered by Gundaya and his family.
During the 9th and 10th century, they
were the subordinates of the Rashtrakutas. After the overthrow of the
Rashtrakuta power by the Western Chalukyas of Kalyani, the Kakatiyas became
their feudatories or Mahamandalesvaras under the Chalukyas of Kalyani.
Kakatiya rulers Beta I, Prola I, Beta
II and Prola II served the Western Chalukya rulers; Somesvara I, Vikramadity
VI, Somesvara III and Jagadekamalla II. After the fall of the Western Chalukyan
power during the reign of Tailapa III, the Kakatiya ruler Rudradeva declared
independence in AD 1158. Thus the role of the Kakatiyas as sovereign power
starts from Rudradeva. Rudradeva, who ruled form AD 1158 to 1195, was the son
and successor of Prola II. He was the founder of the Kakatiya lineage as he
declared independence and started independent rule.
The Hanumakonda epigraph dated AD
1162 gives graphic details of his conquests over his neighbours and how he
extended his sway over coastal Andhra by subduing the Velanaticholas. We learn
from Jalhana’s Suktimuktavali and Hemadri’s Vratakhanda, that Rudradeva faced
defeat in the conflict with the Yadavas of Devagiri. He is credited with laying
foundation stone for a new fort near Warangal, which became the capital of the
Kakatiyas. As Rudradeva had no children, he was succeeded to the throne by his
brother Mahadeva, who ruled from AD 1195 to AD 1198-99.
Mahadeva was defeated by the Yadava
Jaitugi and he lost his life in the battle and his son Ganapatideva was
captured as prisoner by the Yadavas. Political instability and disorder gripped
the Kakatiyas because of the captivity of Ganapati Deva and the death of
Mahadeva. At that juncture, Recharla Rudra, the loyal commander-in-chief of the
Kakatiyas saved the kingdom. Ultimately, Ganapatideva was released by the
Yadavas from prison and was sent to the Kakatiya kingdom. It is argued that
political pressures experienced by the Yadavas from other quarters were
responsible for this release of Ganapatideva.
Ganapatideva ruled from AD 1199 to
1262. Though he faced defeat and failure initially, in the end his reign forms
a brilliant epoch in the history of the Kakatiya rule. Ganapatideva expanded
the Kakatiya territorial state by capturing coastal Andhra by defeating the
Velanati chief, Prithviswera and later he led an expedition to Nellore and
placed Manumasiddhi on the throne of Nellore. But Ganapatideva’s efforts to
bring Kalinga under his sway were not successful.
Ganapatideva in his attempt to
safeguard Manumasiddhi against the attack of Jatavarma Sundara Pandya was
unsuccessful and Jatavarma Sundarapandya, after defeating Manumasiddhi and
Ganapathideva, performed Virabhishekha at Nellore and Kanchi. Ganapatideva
successfully united the entire Telugu-speaking people under his sway and
shifted his capital from Hanumankonda to Warangal.
As Ganapatideva had no male issue, his
daughter Rudramadevi ruled from AD 1262 to 1289. Ganapatideva had two
daughters; Rudrama and Ganapamba. He selected his eldest daughter Rudrama to
succeed him and made her his co-regent from AD 1260 to 1262 to enable her to
gain experience in the art of rulership. The accession of Rudrama to the
Kakatiya throne was a remarkable and memorable event of medieval South India as
she was the first woman ruler of Andhra region.
Rudramadevi proved to be a woman of
substance and rose to the occasion and put the state in order, subduing all
those who opposed her internally. She successfully repulsed the Yadava attack
and drove the Yadavas up to Devagiri as is known from the Bidar epigraph. We
come to know from the Chandupatla epigraph that Rudrama and her general Mallikaijuna
died in the battlefield while opposing Kayasta Ambadeva, who defeated her.
Rudrama was followed by daughter Mummadamba’s son, Prataparudradeva, who ruled
from AD 1289 to AD 1323.
Prataparudra defeated Kayashta
Ambadeva and his allies and the Yadavas who supported Ambadeva. By these
victories, once again the prestige and glory of the Kakatiyas was revived. It
was during his reign that the Delhi Sultans, first Allauddin Khilji and later
Muhammad bin Tughlak turned their attention towards South India and began to
invade the Kakatiya territories. Finally, the Kakatiya power came to an end in
AD 1323, with the failure and defeat of Prataparudra by Muhammad bin Tuglak’s
armies. The Kakatiya rule came to an end with the defeat and death of
Prataparudra.
Polity
The Kakatiya polity was based on
monarchical system. The Kakatiya ruler was the pivot of the entire
administrative structure, yet he was not an absolute autocrat. Generally, in
the process of succession, they followed the law of primogeniture and as already
referred; a woman coming to the throne was a remarkable exception.
The power appears to be decentralized
between the ruler and the subordinates who owed allegiance to the ruler. P.V.
Prabrahma Sastry rightly observes, “The peculiar type of political relationship
between the Kakatiya rulers and their subordinates during the reign of nearly
two centuries makes us believe that they tried to introduce a new type of
polity other than imperialism. The subordinates were allowed to have their
freedom in all respects except military matters. The only concern for the king
was to check their overgrowth in power”.
This made some scholars characterize
Kakatiya polity as a feudal polity of personalized rule by a warrior elite and
a socio-economic formation marked by oppression of the peasantry, economic
stagnation and de-urbanization. But a critical examination proves that this
image was inappropriate in the case of Kakatiya Andhradesa.
Another alternative model of
segmentary state suggested by Burton Stein does not appear to be applicable to
the Kakatiya state. Cynthia Talbot maintains, “Stein himself excluded internal
Andhra from the South Indian macro region characterized by the segmentary state
and ritual sovereignty, calling Telengana, a shatter region on the borders of
South India proper”.
Cynthia Talbot, after a thorough
discussion of the suitability of the models – feudal, segmentary and
integrative, declares the Kakatiya state as best understood as a fluctuating
political network composed in large part of a multitude of personalities
between lords and underlings. Some of the fibres in the fabric of Kakatiya
polity united the rulers directly to their primary subordinates, others led
from these subordinates to different tiers of associates in a densely ramified
pattern.
Connections extended horizontally,
integrating localities spread over a wide territory, as well as vertically
reaching down into villages and towns”. Cynthia Talbot is of the view that the
Kakatiya polity is closely approximating to Weber’s patrimonial model of the
State, i.e., personalized authority of a ruler through a class of dependent
officials. R. Champakalakshmi is of the view that Cynthia Talbot has no
specific model to offer for Andhra polity.
Talbot views the Kakatiya polity as a
regional variant of a pan-Indian complex, a dynamic and an expansionist world.
There is also a view that Kakatiya polity is an integrative polity. The
Kakatiya rulers were assisted by a council of ministers and a host of officers
at the centre as well as the provincial and local level. They took care to see
that the territorial segments were properly divided and ruled effectively by
loyal officials. Mandala, Nadu, Sthala, Seema and Bhumi were the names of the
territorial divisions.
The Kakatiya state was a military-state
ready to face the threat of internal and external enemies. The military
organization of the Kakatiyas was based on Nayamkara system. In this system the
ruler assigned fiefs to the Nayaks in lieu of their salaries and the Nayaks
were to maintain some army for the ruler’s use.
The number of soldiers, horses, and
elephants that are to be maintained by the Nayak were fixed by the king as per
the fiefs enjoyed by the Nayak. Apart from the army that was supplied by the
Nayaks, the Kakatiyas also maintained a standing army under the control of the
commanders, who were directly responsible to the ruler.
In the military organization, forts
played crucial role and the epigraphs refer to Giridurgas, like Anumakonda,
Raichur, Gandikota and the Vanadurgas, like Kandur and Narayanavanam, the
Jaladurgas, like Divi and Kolanu and the Sthaladurgas, like Warangal and
Dharanikota. Nitisara of Prataparudra refers to the above mentioned four types
of Durgas.
The military organization enabled the
Kakatiyas to be aggressive and rapidly expand as an Andhra power from the core
region or nuclear zone of Telangana to the coastal districts and hence to
Rayalaseema or South-West Andhra and to penetrate to the Tamil region also.
Talbot gives importance to the strategy adopted by the Kakatiyas in patronizing
warrior chiefs, and promoting martial ethos and assumption of martial epithets
by the rulers. The relationships between Nayaks and rulers are marked by layers
of lord-subordinate relationships loosely bound through personal loyalties of
allegiance and service.
Society
Relying on the evidence furnished by
the Dharmasastric literature, traditional historians perceive the society as
based on the Varnasramadharma model and divided into fourfold Varnas; Brahman,
Kshatriya, Vaisya and Sudra. We also notice the emergence of sub-castes and
Brahmins being divided on the basis of sub-regions as Velanatis, Veginatis and
Mulakanatis, besides Srotriyas and Niyogis. Interestingly, the community of
Brahmins besides being scholars and teachers also acted as Dandanayakas or
commanders and Amatyas or ministers.
Rulership was not the monopoly of the
Kshatriyas alone and the prominence of the Kshatriya community as rulers
appears to have diminished to a large extent. Anyone could become a ruler,
provided he had the necessary qualities and abilities. One of the prominent
features of medieval Andhra was the emergence of Sudras as the new political
elite and the other social groups accepted the superiority of the Sudras as
rulers. Further, it is believed that kings made it their duty to uphold the
Brahmanical Dharma and took measures to see that each caste followed the duties
assigned to it.
There is a strong belief that in
medieval Andhra, the Brahmans occupied superior place in social order and the
social order itself depended on their dictates. Cynthia Talbot rejects the
image of a static village and a caste based organization during this period as
Varna and Jati are less visible in the Kakatiya lithic records and hence she
argues that the idealized paradigm of Varna and Jati are not relevant.
Identities on the basis of local, familial and occupational associations are
highlighted and very interestingly neither the ruling family nor the warrior
elite claimed the superior Varna status, to prove their high ancestry.
Instead, clan and lineage were taken
as the greater signifiers of social status with considerable divergence of
status within the larger clan-Varna affiliation. Such claim was made by the
Brahmins in the epigraphs by referring to their Gotras or Sakhas and Vama
status only in situations of contention about power and resources. Kakatiya
lithic records hail the Sudras as the bravest of the four Varnas and also the
best. Cynthia Talbot is of the view that the individual eminence, military
service and administrative ranking were the main basis for identities, and
claim to social importance. Mobility in turn indicates social typologies.
Considerable social fluidity among
all non-Brahmins and the existence of occupational groups like merchants makes
it too complex a situation for applying any standard model for Kakatiya Andhra
society. Temple epigraphs testify to the practice of Saani being added to the
women of the royal family and those attached to the temple. Women made
donations referring themselves as somebody’s wife or daughter. That women had
right to Stridhana and other forms of property is evident as women comprise 11
per cent of all individual donors.
Epigraphs also record donation of
livestock, temple buildings and metal items used in ritual worship, along with
irrigational facilities and cash. Interestingly, most of the temple women or
Gudisanis were daughters of respectable men like Nayakas and Settis and temple
women were not barred from marriage.
Cynthia Talbot is of the view that
the condition of women in Kakatiya age was by no means deplorable as was
presumed by traditionalist observers basing their conclusions on legal and
epic literature. It can be concluded that multiplicity of social foci existed
in Kakatiya phase, wherein both kingship ties and territorial proximity created
linkages among people based on factors like military service, a common
sectarian membership or similar occupation.
Social rigidity was less noticeable
due to dynamism and fluidity witnessed in social relations. For example, the
literary test Palanativirulakatha refers to the war and the friends Balachandra
from diverse backgrounds: a Brahmin, a blacksmith, a goldsmith, a washer man, a
potter, and a barber and all of them call themselves ‘brothers’ and dine
together before going to battle. Merchants and artisan association appear to be
the largest category of collective donors known from the epigraphs of the
Kakatiyas. Social relationships appear to be based on common interest and
occupations rather than Vama and Jati as social identities were not expressed
in terms of Varna or Jati.
Economy
Kakatiya epigraphs bear testimony to
the economic development witnessed by Andhradesa due to the cumulative effect
of the steps taken by rulers and feudatories and officials from AD 1158 to
1324. Both agriculture and trade and commerce, particularly long distance trade
acted as a catalyst in carrying the Kakatiya state and making it economically
sound.
Cynthia Talbot writes “During the
Kakatiya era, inland Andhra economy underwent considerable growth due to the
extension of agriculture into uncultivated territories, the boosting of
agricultural productivity through the construction of irrigational facilities
and an overall rise in trade and commerce in which the temple as an institution
was ultimately intertwined”.
Though the core area of the Kakatiyas
was ecologically in dry zone with scanty rainfall, with soil not very fertile,
the Kakatiyas paid much attention to agriculture, the main occupation of
majority of its population. They employed tank irrigation as a necessary
technique to provide water for cultivation.
In order to encourage more people to
undertake the digging of tanks, wells and canals, tank construction was made
one of the Saptasantanas which confers merit. Kakatiya epigraphs refer to more
than 38 tanks of considerable size which provided water through artificial
channels to thousands of acres. Of all the tanks, the Ramappa and the Pakala
lakes are of large size and require special mention. Ramappa Lake adjoins the
well-known Ramappa temple at Palampet in Mulug taluk of Warangal district.
Gopal Reddy and P.V.P. Sastry state that this lake had a colossal bund only one
side that extends over 200 feet and rises up to 56 feet.
The lake has a ring of hills on three
sides. Kakati Ganapati Deva’s Senapati, Recharla Rudra constructed this lake in
AD 1213. Pakala Lake in Narasampet taluk ofWarangal district is larger than
Ramappa Lake, with a dam composed of laterite pebbles and earth that is one
mile long from which 40 artificial channels have been extended. This lake was
also constructed in the time of Ganapati Deva by a subordinate, Jagadala
Mummadi, the son of a minister or Mantri.
The multitude of historical traces
confirms that a boom in the building of tanks occurred in inland Andhra while
the Kakatiyas were ruling. The tank foundation inscriptions are distributed
throughout Telengana, the southern coastal districts, and in Cuddapah of
Rayalaseema. They are more concentrated in the districts of Khammam and
Warangal. Along with tank construction, we also notice the construction of
temples with a tank in the interior as well as addition of a tank to the
existing temples.
Cynthia Talbot observes the frequency
of new temples is notably higher in the Telangana than in coastal Andhra. The
temple construction also led to the growth of new settlements of people who brought
uncultivated virgin land into cultivation. By these processes of tank
construction and temple construction, the Kakatiyas achieved the twin objective
of improving productivity by bringing new areas under cultivation and also the
formation of Andhra as a regional society, noted by Talbot.
Cultivable land was classified as wet
and dry land. Wet land is further divided as paddy growing land and garden
land. Dry lands are those where crops like millet, sesame, indigo, mustard,
castor, etc., were grown which needed less water. Forests and pastures were
kept exclusively for grazing cattle. Land was surveyed and measured, where the
ruler collected one-fourth to one-half of the produce as revenue. The revenue
was collected either in cash or in kind. The Kakatiyas levied different taxes
like tax on grazing, property tax, income tax, profession tax, marriage tax,
tax on herds of sheep and tax on salt. Heavy taxation by the state appears to
be the feature of Kakatiya polity.
In the Kakatiya Andhra, trade was carried
on by well-organized Srenis or guilds. Both the merchants and artisans had
their own guilds. Epigraphs refer to guild of weavers, agriculturists, oil
pressers, mat makers, smiths, potters and jewelers. The guilds obtained a
license to conduct business in a particular town or fair. Fairs or weekly
markets were held regularly at specified places. The merchandise was
transported by means of carts, oxen, horses, etc., and to a great extent by
boats and barges through the rivers Govadari and Krishna.
Kakatiyas recognized the importance
of long-distance trade. One indication that they wanted to encourage maritime
trade, comes from the famous Mompalli epigraph which runs as follows: “This
inscribed guarantee has been granted by his majesty the king Ganapati Deva
which assures and welcomes the traders from other areas going back and forth
through selected area to all countries and towns. In the past, kings forcibly
seized all the cargo such as gold, elephants, horses, jewels, etc., when
sea-going vessels journeying from one region to another were caught in storms,
wrecked and cast on shore. But we for the sake of our reputation and religious
merit and out of pity for those who have incurred the grave risk of a sea
voyage thinking that wealth is more valuable than life give up all but the
customary tariff” Motupalli must have been the chief port of the Kakatiyas and
this port was visited by the Venitian traveller, Marco Polo.
The Motupalli epigraph specifies the
rates assessed on a variety of items, including scents such as sandal, camphor,
rose-water, ivory, pearls, corals, a range of metals like copper, zinc and
lead, silk, pepper, and areca nuts. This above list gives an idea of exports
and imports from Motupalli port to other Indian regions along the coast as well
to foreign territories.
One Warangal epigraph issued by
merchant groups, who traded in the main markets of Warangal, refers to the same
commodities mentioned above. Another epigraph notes that a number of
agricultural products offered for sale in Warangal market included rice, wheat,
and other grains and assorted vegetables, coconuts, mangoes, tamarind and other
fruits, sesame seeds, green lentils, mustard, honey, ghee, oil, turmeric and
ginger.
We have epigraphic reference to the
activities of Pekkandru, a guild which was carrying on long distance trade.
Besides, Motupalli, Krishnapattanam, Chinaganajam, Nellore, and Divi also
played a very crucial role in fostering sea-borne trade. Thus, flourishing
agriculture and surplus produce and long-distance trade carried on by guilds
like Pekkandru was the base for the sound economic position of Kakatiya Andhra.
Religion
The early Kakatiya rulers were
adherents of Jainism of the Digambara sect. They are credited with the
construction of Padmakshi temple at Hanumakonda. Though there are strong
references to the worship of Buddhism, it had lost its impetus and Buddha has
been identified with Vishnu and Buddhism was absorbed into Brahmanical
religion. Saivism was the most predominant faith in Kakatiya Andhra; Beta II
and Prola II of this lineage are known to be the adherents of the Kalamukha
school of Saivism. During the reign of Ganapati Deva, the Pasupata sect of
Saivism had become very popular and Visveswara Sivacharya became the Rajaguru
of Ganapati Deva.
The Malakapuram inscription of
Rudramadevi helps us to know about the growth of Pasupata sect and Golaki Matha
activities in Andhradesa. During this period another sect of Saivism, Aradhya
Saivism also emerged and Mallikarjuna Pandita was a well-known pioneer of this
sect. In the past three decades, western scholars like Herman Kulke and Burton
Stein have stressed that religions patronage by royalty was a critical element
of state formation. Further scholars like Spencer, Brackenbridge, and Appadurai
also opine that by religious patronage, kings enhanced their royal authority.
There is a view that Brahmanical
rituals legitimized and conferred royal power on the kings of the Sudra
community. Cynthia Talbot observes; “Contrary to what one might expect from the
secondary literature, we have seen that the religious patronage of the
Kakatiyas was quite limited. Altogether, the five independent Kakatiya rulers
left behind only 26 inscriptions documenting their religious gifts spanning
over a period of 150 years (Rudradevas – six grants; Mahadeva – one
Ganapatideva independently – 14 and with Rudramadevi – one; Rudramadevi
independently – 4 and Prataparudra – 4). Rudradeva, the first independent ruler
constructed the Thousand-pillared temple at Hanumankonda and laid the foundation
for a new capital at Warangal along with a temple to the tutelary deity of
Svayambhudeva.
Ganapati Deva also built temple at
Motupalli because by that time this area had become a secondary core area of
the Kakatiyas. It may be suggested that the Kakatiyas regarded divine
legitimation and the support of the institutionalized religion as important
assets to royal authority, and not necessarily the foundation for their
sustenance as effective rulers. The model of Dharmic kingship does not apply to
the Kakatiya rule as the Kakatiyas understood that political interests
differed from religious interests.
Culture and Literature
Andhra under the Kakatiyas witnessed
considerable literary activity. Sanskrit occupied the place of pride and was
the language of the educated few. Many epigraphs of this period are written in
Kavya-style of Sanskrit. The noted poets who were the authors of the epigraphs
of this age are Nandi, Acchitendra Antantasuri and Iswarasuri. The greatest
Sanskrit poets of this age were Vidyanadha and Jayapasenani. Vidyanatha wrote
Parataparudrayasobhushana. Jayapasenani was the author of Nrityaratnauali and
Gitaratnavali.
Coming to Telugu literature, the most
important are Tikkanna Somayaji who wrote Nirvachananottarammayatn, Mantri
Bhaskara who wrote Bhaskara Ramayana, Gona Budda Reddi who wrote Ranganatha
Ramayanam, Nanne Choda, the author of Kumara Sambhavama, Baddena the author of
Sumati Satakam and Palkuriki Somanadha, the author of Basavapuranam, and
Panditaradhyacharita. Of the above Ranganadha Ramayanam, occupies a unique
place as a Dvipadakairya.
The Kakatiyas inherited the Chalukyan
architecture but the distinctive feature of their architecture is the display
of more indigenous art than that allowed by the texts. The architects used locally
available granite and sandstone in the main structure of the Vimana and used
bricks and lime in constructing superstructure. They used black granite for
pillars, jambs, lintels, decorative motifs and icons.
Their temple architecture reflects
great sophistication and the ‘Thousand-pillared temple’ is a landmark in the
evolution of the Kakatiyan architectural style. The great Rudresvara temple was
built by Recharla Rudra, the commander in chief of Ganapati Deva; in the words
of Y. Gopala Reddi it marks the climax of the Kakatiyan style. The Gomateswara
temple at Manthani, the Erakesvara and the Namesvara temples at Pillalamarri
and the temple at Naguladu are the masterpieces of the Kakatiyan style of
architecture.
About the Kakatiya sculptures, we
have very little evidence to study it. Their main decoration was Kirtimukha or
Krititorana. Nandis are a special feature of the Kakatiya sculpture. The Nandi
images at Palampet, Thousand-pillared temple, Sambhuni Gudi, Ghanapur,
Kolanupalli are some of the best examples with profuse bell ornamentation. The
sculptural presence of Hamsa or swan motifs, on the gateways and friezes is to
be noticed for their grace and beauty. Of the decorative sculptures, the motifs
of dancers and Kolata are worth recording.
It is also suggested by scholars
that, they represent the dance styles of Jayapasenani. The Narasimha temple at
Parivela near Nalgonda consists of profusely carved lintels and jambs. The
temples at Nandigonda contain richly furnished Mandapa pillars and ceilings.
The Kakatiyas also extended patronage
to the art of painting. The traces of painting that are found on ceilings of
the pillared halls of the temples at Ghanapur and Palampet bear testimony to
the painting skill of that period. The defaced painting of the ‘Churning of the
Milk Ocean’ found on the ceiling of the Sabha Mandepa of the Namevara temple at
Pillalamarri is also a good example of their painting skill.
The Kakatiya rule in Andhra was a
period of transition and ushered the beginning of an era in the 13th century.
The Kakatiyas by their support of art and their integrative polity improved
agriculture, commerce and trade in the interior and construction of temples in
Telangana, Rayalaseema and coastal Andhra.
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